The wonders of the Tartars in Marco Polo’s legendary book

The text below is the excerpt of the book The Book of Wonder (ISBN: 9781783107957), written by Marco Polo, published by Parkstone International.

In commencing the description of the countries which Marco Polo visited in Asia, and of things worthy of notice which he observed therein, it is proper to mention that we are to distinguish two Armenias, the Lesser and the Greater. The King of the Lesser Armenia dwells in a city called Sebastoz, and rules his dominions with strict regard to justice. The towns, fortified places, and castles are numerous. There is abundance of all necessaries of life, as well as of those things which contribute to its comfort. Game, both of beasts and birds, is in plenty. It must be said, however, that the air of the country is not remarkably healthy. In former times its gentry were esteemed expert and brave soldiers; but at the present day they are great drinkers, cowardly, and worthless. On the sea-coast there is a city named Laiassus, a place of considerable traffic. Its port is frequented by merchants from Venice, Genoa, and many other places, who trade in spices and drugs of different sorts, manufactures of silk and wool, and other rich commodities. Those who design to travel into the interior of the Levant, usually proceed in the first instance to this port of Laiassus. The boundaries of the Lesser Armenia are, on the south, the Land of Promise, now occupied by the Saracens; on the north, Karamania, inhabited by Turkomans; towards the north-east lie the cities of Kaisariah, Sevasta, and many others subject to the Tartars; and on the western side it is bounded by the sea, which extends to the shores of Christendom.

The inhabitants of Turkomania may be distinguished into three classes. The Turkomans, who reverence Mahomet and follow his law, are a rude people who are dull of intellect. They dwell amongst the mountains and in places difficult to access, where their object is to find good pasture for their cattle, as they live entirely upon animal food. There is here an excellent breed of horses, which has the appellation of Turki, and fine mules which are sold at high prices. The other classes are Greeks and Armenians, who reside in the cities and fortified places, and gain their living by commerce and manufacture. The best and handsomest carpets in the world are wrought here, and also silks of crimson and other rich colours. Amongst its cities are those of Kogni, Kaisariah, and Sevasta, in which St Blaise obtained the glorious crown of martyrdom. They are all subject to the Great Khan, Emperor of the Oriental Tartars, who appoints governors to them.

Manar Jomban, 14th century, the Tartars — Manar Jomban, 14th century. Isfahan (Iran).

Armenia Major is an extensive province, at the entrance of which is a city named Arzingan, where there is a manufacture of very fine cotton cloth called bombasines, as well as of many other curious fabrics, which it would be tedious to enumerate. It possesses the handsomest and most excellent baths of warm water, issuing from the earth, that are anywhere to be found. Its inhabitants are for the most part native Armenians, but under the dominion of the Tartars. In this province there are many cities, but Arzingan is the principal, and the seat of an archbishop; and the next in consequence are Argiron and Darziz. It is very extensive, and, in the summer season, the station of a part of the army of the Eastern Tartars, on account of the good pasture it affords for their cattle. However, as winter approaches they are obliged to change their quarters, the snowfall being so very deep that the horses cannot find subsistence, and for the sake of warmth and fodder they proceed south. Within a castle named Paipurth, which you meet with in going from Trebizond to Tauris, there is a rich mine of silver. In the central part of Armenia stands an exceedingly large and high mountain, upon which, it is said, the Ark of Noah rested, and for this reason it is termed the Mountain of the Ark. The circuit of its base cannot be compassed in less than two days. The ascent is impracticable on account of the snow towards the summit, which never melts, but goes on increasing by each successive fall. In the lower region, however, near the plain, the melting of the snow fertilises the ground, and occasions such an abundant vegetation that all the cattle which collect there in summer from the neighbouring country meet with a never-failing supply. Bordering upon Armenia, to the south-west, are the districts of Mosul and Maredin, which shall be described hereafter, and many others too numerous to particularise. To the north lies Zorzania, near the confines of which there is a fountain of oil which discharges so great a quantity as to furnish loading for many camels. The use made of it is not for the purpose of food, but as an unguent for the cure of cutaneous distempers in men and cattle, as well as other complaints; it is also good for burning. In the neighbouring country no other is used in their lamps, and people come from distant parts to procure it.

In Zorzania the King is usually styled David Melik, which in our language signifies David the King. One part of the country is subject to the Tartars, and the other part, in consequence of the strength of its fortresses, has remained in the possession of its native princes. It is situated between two seas, of which that on the northern (western) side is called the Greater Sea (Euxine), and the other, on the eastern side, is called the Sea of Abakù (Caspian). This latter is in circuit 4,500 kilometres, and partakes of the nature of a lake, not communicating with any other sea. It has several islands, with handsome towns and castles, some of which are inhabited by people who fled before the Grand Tartar, when he laid waste to the kingdom or province of Persia, and took shelter in these islands or in the fastnesses of the mountains, where they hoped to find security. Some of the islands are uncultivated. This sea produces an abundance of fish, particularly sturgeon and salmon at the mouths of the rivers, as well as others of a large sort. The general wood of the country is the box-tree. I was told that in ancient times the kings of the country were born with the mark of an eagle on the right shoulder. The people are well made, bold sailors, expert archers, and fair combatants in battle. They are Christians, observing the ritual of the Greek Church, and wear their hair short, in the manner of the Western clergy.

Folio from a Shahnameh (Book of Kings) by Ferdowsi, the Tartars — Folio from a *Shahnameh (Book of Kings)* by Ferdowsi; verso: The Enthronement of Shah Zav; recto: unrelated text, c. 1330-1340. Opaque watercolour, ink and gold on paper, 59.1 x 40.0 cm. Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

This is the province into which, when Alexander the Great attempted to advance northwards, he was unable to penetrate, by reason of the narrowness and difficulty of a certain pass, which on one side is washed by the sea, and is confined on the other by high mountains and woods, for the length of four miles, so that a very few men were capable of defending it against the whole world. Disappointed in this attempt, Alexander caused a great wall to be constructed at the entrance of the pass, and fortified it with towers, in order to restrain those who dwelt beyond it from giving him trouble. From its uncommon strength the pass obtained the name of the Gate of Iron, and Alexander is commonly said to have enclosed the Tartars between two mountains.

It is not correct, however, to call the people Tartars, which in those days they were not, but of a race named Cumani, with a mixture of other nations. In this province there are many towns and castles; the necessaries of life are in abundance; the country produces a great quantity of silk, and a manufacture is carried on of silk interwoven with gold. Here are found vultures of a large size, of a species named avigi. The inhabitants in general gain their livelihood by trade and manual labour. The mountainous nature of the country, with its strong narrow passes, has prevented the Tartars from effecting the entire conquest of it. At a convent of monks dedicated to St Lunardo, the following miraculous circumstances are said to take place. In a salt-water lake, four daysÊ journey in circuit, upon the border of which the church is situated, the fish never make their appearance until the first day of Lent, and from that time to Easter-eve they are found in vast abundance; but on Easter-day they are no longer to be seen, nor during the remainder of the year. It is called the Lake of Geluchalat. The great rivers Herdil, Geihon, Kur, and Araz, with many others, flow into the before-mentioned sea of Abakù, which is encompassed with mountains. The Genoese merchants have recently begun to navigate it, and they bring from thence the kind of silk called ghellie. In this province there is a handsome city named Teflis, around which are suburbs and many fortified posts. It is inhabited by Armenian and Georgian Christians, as well as by some Mahometans and Jews; but these last are in no great numbers. Manufactures of silks and of many other articles are carried on there. Its inhabitants are subjects of the great King of the Tartars. Although we speak only of a few of the principal cities in each province, it is to be understood that there are many others, which it is unnecessary to particularise, unless they happened to contain something remarkable; but should the occasion present itself, these will be hereafter described.